The Donation of Constantine and an Unintended Mention of Fraud

Altarpiece by Giovanni di Tano Fei depicting the Donation of Constantine on the predella. Photo from the website of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, altarpiece not currently on display.

 

When trying to decide the genre of La Commedia many scholars, including Giuseppe Mazzotta, make an argument that La Commedia is an encyclopedic work since it references many important classical works by authors such as Ovid and Homer as well as important biblical and historical events known to Dante. While reading on my iPad I have to have the footnotes of our copy open on a computer for quick reference and find myself frequently googling to find more information. Reading La Commedia is not just a poetic experience but also an intellectual journey through the classics and history. A short reference in  Canto 19 to the Donation of Constantine reminded me of the encyclopedic style of La Commedia that I think is an excellent example of Dante’s style.

Canto 19 takes place in the third pouch of the eight circle of Hell which holds the simonists. Simony is the sin of selling church offices or indulgences placing monetary gain on the earthly realm over spiritual virtue. The contrapasso in this canto places sinners upside down in mock baptismal fonts with fire on their feet. The simonists are inverted in Hell because when they were living these sinners had their priorities inverted, placing monetary and political gain over the salvation of their mortal soul. A note in my copy mentions that the anointing of their feet with oil is a reference both to Jesus being anointed with oil in the gospels as well as to four of the seven sacraments which require being anointed with oils.

While there are many things I could write about this canto, I am going to focus on just one terzina found in Canto 19, lines 115-117 in which Dante writes:

Ah, Constantine, not your conversion, but that

dowry which the first rich father took from you, has

been the mother of so much evil.

This terzina, discussing the Donation of Constantine, was the first example of the encyclopedic nature of Dante’s Commedia I was introduced to and whose layers I find fascinating.

The Donation of Constantine was an event that was thought to have taken place in the 4th Century AD. The story was that the Emperor Constantine the Great had contracted leprosy and was healed by Pope Sylvester after being converted and baptized. Grateful to Pope Sylvester, Constantine gave the Church parts of his empire, including sites important to the Church such as Jerusalem and Rome with an imperial decree documenting this transfer of power.

Canto 19 lines 115-117 is not the only time Dante wrote about the Donation of Constantine. In an earlier uncompleted treatise on the nature of power titled De Monarchia (3.10.1) Dante writes extensively about whether the Catholic Church or the Empire should have supremacy over the other. Many scholars in Dante’s time used the Donation of Constantine as evidence why the Pope should have authority over the Emperor. Dante disagreed, arguing that the land was not Constantine’s to give nor Pope Sylvester’s to accept. The terzina quoted above is Dante holding Constantine responsible for the many evils done by Popes that were justified by the Donation of Constantine. In just these three lines, Dante references not just a historical event but also a current debate in his time. While one does have to know the background about the Donation of Constantine to truly understand the point Dante making, the multiple layers of reference still make La Commedia an encyclopedic work in my eyes.

During Dante’s lifetime, the Donation of Constantine was believed to be a true event that undoubtedly occurred. It was only in the 1400s when two priests, Lorenzo Valla and Nicholas of Cusa, analyzed the Latin used in the document and proved that the Latin was far too modern to have been written in the 300s when the Donation of Constantine was said to have taken place. Although Dante was proved right when he wrote that the Donation of Constantine did not give the Pope power over the Emperor, it was not for the reasons Dante argued but that the event did not actually happen.

Curiously, the placement of a reference to the Donation of Constantine in Canto 19 of Inferno is unintentionally perfect on Dante’s part. Virgil and Dante have just left sinners who commit violence using intellect or fraud in Canto 18 and are about to reach thieves in Canto 24. The forgery of the Donation of Constantine was an act that I would classify as violence using intellect or in a broader term fraud as well as a theft of power from those who held it by dishonest means. Putting a reference to the Donation of Constantine between those two types of sins is unintentionally genius since the forgery is a marriage of those two sins. Of course, Dante did not place this reference here knowingly since he believed that the Donation of Constantine happened. Regardless, I believe it is worth mentioning as an interesting observation even though it is undoubtedly without intent.

The image above is an altarpiece in the Metropolitan Museum of Art’s collection which is not currently on display but has been previously. The bottom of the three panels depict the events leading up to and including the Donation of Constantine. The altarpiece was recently on display and the details were much clearer when I saw it in person last year. Once it is back on display to the general public I would encourage anyone to go see it in person since the altarpiece is much larger than it appears in the photo and exquisitely detailed.

Blog post due on Monday, March 18 and announcements

This is your first reflection post. Follow the instruction on the Assignment page of our website/Blogging.

On March 20, you have to come prepared to class, that is having studied the assigned cantos (even though you haven written a blog post on those cantos). We’ll make up for the missed  post with an in-class reading questionnaire.

Late submissions won’t be accepted starting from today.

 

 

 

Dante’s Fear

Dante and Virgil are now entering the sixth pouch of the eighth circle. While they believed they had escaped the demons in the previous pouch, they now realize they are being chased by a huge pack of the Malabranche, meaning “evil claws.”

The canto seems to give the travelers a sense of uneasiness. In the beginning of the Canto, Dante seems afraid that they angered the  “Silent, alone, no one escorting us, we made our way. One went before, one went after, as Friars Minor when they walk together.” (Inferno 23, 1-3) 

Saving Dante, Virgil grabs him and jumps through the sixth pouch of the Eighth Circle with Dante in his arms. Now that they have lost the Malabranche, they are in the Sixth Pouch, where they see more souls aligned in a circle.

“And they were dressed in cloaks with cowls so low they fell before their eyes.” (Inferno 23, 76)

Dante is trying to find one of the souls now that he might recognize as he has been. Instead, he is now the one who is recognized by his Tuscan language. “Stay your steps, o you who hurry so along this darkened air!” (Inferno 23, 77)

Dante seems unsure of what will happen next, but seems to continue to symbolize his truths and emotions through the constant darkness and uncertainty of his journey with Virgil through the circles into hell. 

Of Cosmological Apatheia

Stoicism is a school of philosophy that dates back from 300 B.C.E. It emphasizes philosophy ought to be practiced not as academic studies, but as a way of life. Alighieri has indeed incorporated many stoical concepts and references throughout the Cantos from thinkers like Epictetus, Seneca, and Cicero. Of those concepts, I would like to introduce what Apatheia is. Apatheia, as the stoic Epictetus would define, ‘is freedom from unhealthy passion’ (pain, fear, craving, and pleasure) and having apatheia in one’s life would constitute a life of that is both virtuous and flourishing (IEP).

The method of practicing and developing apatheia towards one life can be achieved through the visualization of the cosmos from the omnipresent perspective of looking at the world down below and up above.

We can see that Alighieri expresses a similitude of the grandeur view of the cosmos. On line 1-3 of Canto 24, There is an astrological description showing the relative relation between the Sun and the constellation of Aquarius, which causes the changing of the firmament. It is important to notice the order of this Terzina because the cosmological element is ordered like this: Sun, Aquarius, and the sky.

In that part of the youthful year when the sun

tempers its locks under Aquarius and already the

nights are moving south (Inf. 24. 1-3)

Then on the next Terzina, the causal relationship between the ground and the frost – which hints at the melting of frost – alludes to the Earth and the changing of the weather.

when on the ground the frost copies the image of

her white sister, but her pen retains its temper only

briefly (Inf. 24. 4-6)

And again, the element of frostiness is being mentioned again in later line, “see the fields all white”. But more importantly, the perspective of the cosmos shifts into a one that focuses on human matter. And there is some type of unbalanced display of emotions that are concerned with the changing of season and nature.

[the peasant] goes back in his house, and complains here and

there, like a wretch who knows not what to do; then

he goes forth again and stores hope in his wicker basket

again (Inf. 24. 10-12)

Those dispositions can be characterized as being fearful, anxious, and distressed when the changes in the environment are not depended on our expectations and our ability to control certain situations. Such moment of unstable emotion is emphasized on line 16-17, “so my master made me lose confidence, when I saw his brow so clouded”. However, there is a sudden shift in Virgil’s disposition in the next two Terzina that can be summarized as:

with the sweet expression I first saw at the foot of the mountain, / he opened his arms and took hold of me (Inf. 24. 20-23)

And as Seneca has said

“The wise man and devotee of philosophy are needless to say inseparable from his body, and yet he is detached from it so far as the best part of his personality is concerned, directing his thoughts towards things far above.” (Letter LXV, Letters from a Stoic)

The excerpt brought from Seneca highlights the importance of Virgil’s virtuous strength, in which draws a connection when the pilgrim praises Virgil “And like one who uses judgment as he acts, always seeming to look ahead, so, carrying me up to the top.” We can see there is an implicit iconography of ascension by comparing these two excerpts. It is the one who directs his study above earthly and cosmological configurations to establish a complete perspective of the cosmos, thus enables one to have an outlook of mental calmness on life.

As a whole Alighieri’s meticulous layering of the cosmos imagery provides adequate ground for that one must see the world in a way that goes beyond human and social affairs, the changing of earthly environment and seasons. We must put our fascination onto the stars and the constellations to develop a sense of universal apatheia, that human worries and suffering is so insignificant compared to the sublime vastness of the universe. From there on, we can go ‘up’ to see the world in perspective starting from the smallest anthropological layers to the cosmological layers (human and society, the earth, the firmament, and the stars) to have a complete view of nature and the divine, and that we must confront the uncontrollable nature with emotional resilience like that of the cardinal virtues (justice, prudence, fortitude, temperance).

Test of Faith

In the Commento Baroliniano of canto 21 it discusses that Malacoda was able to deceive Virgil thus placing them in danger “Malacoda is able to deceive Virgilio because he accompanies his lie with a great truth: the true date of the death of Christ … Malacoda’s truthful lie—in effect, a falsehood that appears true—is the precise inversion of comedìa, a truth that appears false.” This marks the second time that Virgil has failed in this journey of guiding Dante. Although it wasn’t a walk in the park their journey has been relatively smooth aside from some hiccups like this event or at the gate of Dis. The purpose of this journey seems to be for Dante to understand the actions that God makes and to have faith in his decisions. But what is the purpose of these failures, these are certainly not coincidental Hell itself and its occupants are all governed by God himself, this little excursion of Dante and Virgil is definitely a part of his design. These incidents don’t seem to affect Dante much as we saw during the gate of Dis, he only became more and more nervous as he watched Virgil become more anxious through his face. In contrast these events seem to affect Virgil much more as we saw during in Dis his confidence that always seemed to be invincible was wounded and even now as we have seen in these recent dealing with the devils it has left a crack in him. It seems that this journey is also a test of faith for Virgil as much as it is for Dante.

Virgil and Dante’s Relationship

During Canto 23, the closeness of the relationship that Dante and Virgil have developed during their journey is shown. From the second Virgil appears to Dante in canto 1, it is clear the pilgrim admired the poet. However, the source of Virgil’s concern for Dante seems mostly dependant on the fact a higher power wished it. However, during their travels through the various circles of hell, it is evident that a bond has been developed. In the start of canto 23, in lines 28-30, Virgil is able to know what Dante is feeling and worried about just by looking at him. And while theres no doubt Dante or anyone would look quite shaken having just run away from demons, it also goes to show the intimacy that has developed between the two. Virgil can recognise Dante’s concern without him having to verbalise it.
Dante has reguarly refered to Virgil as a father and master, mostly in the context of what a great inspiration to Virgil has been to him. In this canto it goes a step foward, with Dante describing motherly actions of Virgil towards him, eg. line 37-42: ‘my leader seized me quickly, like a mother who is, awakened by the noise and sees the flames burning close by, who takes up her son and flees, caring more for him than for herself, not stopping even to put on her shift:” Virgil has gone further than simply being Dante’s guide, to caring baout his safety above all else.

Canto 24: Reptilian Thievery and The Symbol of Snakes and Rebirth

Gustave Doré, “Thieves”, Date: 1890, Medium: engraving

http://danteworlds.laits.utexas.edu/gallery11.html

Canto 24 begins like Canto 22 with a lengthy simile. In Canto 24, Dante and Virgil reach the seventh bolgia of the eighth circle. They find a ruined bridge and must climb rocks in order to reach the next level of hell. Dante is quite anxious, but Virgil helps Dante by carrying him and guiding him in what to do. Dante describes Virgil’s wisdom by comparing him to “one who uses judgment as he acts” (Canto 24, Line 24). Dante pauses for a rest from the difficult climb and Virgil advises him that “one does not gain fame sitting on down cushions,” meaning recognition does not come to those who are lazy. This advice seems to be an indication of Dante the poet’s life outside of Inferno.

Next, Dante and Virgil approach the sinners of Canto 24, thieves. Dante notices a “terrible crowding of serpents” (81). As shown in the Blake medium, the thieves are naked and chased by serpents. Once the snakes catch the sinners they bind their legs and hands. When the sinners are bitten, they catch fire, burn, and are reborn. Dante alludes to the Phoenix when he describes the fate of the thieves as they rise from the ashes like a Phoenix. It is both compelling and fitting that Dante, the poet, using snakes in the punishment for thieves. Snakes are often the symbol of rebirth. They shed their skin, transform, and represent immortality. Historically, snakes also act as bearers of secrets. In a religious context, snakes can represent deceit for it was a serpent who deceives Eve into eating a forbidden fruit. The serpents in Canto 24 punish thieves, people who hide massive secrets by stealing and trying to get away with their crime. It seems as though these thieves are snakes but instead of positive renewal they are forced to burn, die, and be reborn only to have to continue that process for eternity. As thieves they stole, therefore as sinners, they are infinitely having their livelihoods stolen from them as they are bitten by snakes. In Blake’s medium, it is evident by their expressions that the sinners are in pure agony as they are entangled by serpents.

Dante and Virgil encounter a sinner and Virgil asks him who he is. The sinner replies with, “I rained down from Tuscany” (121). Again the person Dante confronts introduces himself not by name but by the place he is from, signifying that one’s hometown is the strongest identity marker and truly makes him who he is. The sinner continues and states his name as Vanni Fucci. He is there because he stole from the church and blamed it on someone else. Fucci is among the unique sinners that Dante meets. He is one who truly does not want to be seen as he is in Hell. He states, “It pains me more to be caught in the wretchedness where you see me than when I was taken from the other life” (133-134). Fucci feels the shame and embarrassment of his crime. He is more focused on his place in Hell unlike other sinners, like Francesca, who are so stuck in a moment and fixated on what they were in life.

 

Sliding in haste into home of the hypocrites

 

Artist: Bartolomeo Pinelli
1825, Print, Italy
https://art.famsf.org/bartolomeo-pinelli/canto-xxiii-pl-47-linferno-di-dante-dantes-inferno-19633037283

Virgil and Dante continue their journey through the 8th circle of hell after secretly escaping from fighting devils that cause two of them fall in a pitch full of boiling tar. That situation causes the pilgrim to remember the Aesop Fable about a mouse and a deceitful frog who offered to carry a tiny animal across a river with a malicious intention of drowning him. Dante doesn’t even try to hide his overwhelming fear that enraged demons will eventually catch up to them. His agitation continues to build up making his “hairs curling with fear” (Divine Comedy, Dante Alighieri, Canto XXIII, 19), which consequently creates suspense and tension. He suggests to his master to look for a hiding spot before the steamed up demons wind up at their side. Well, Dante’s intuition turns out to be very much on point because the devils appear in pursuit out of nowhere. At that very moment Virgil grabs Dante:

“… like a mother who is

awakened by the noise and sees the flames burning

close by,

who takes up her son and flees, caring more for

him than for herself, not stopping even to put on her

shift:” (Divine Comedy, Canto XXIII, 37-42)

Virgil slides down the rocky cliff with Dante in his arms straight into the sixth pouch, which is the home of hypocrites. Dante completely taken by surprise describes the speed of them moving down:

“Water has never cursed more swiftly down a

slice to turn the wheels of a land mill, as it

approaches the paddles,

than did my master down the wall, carrying

me along on his breast like his son, not his

companion.” (Divine Comedy, Canto XXIII, 46-51)

Once Virgil and Dante reach the sixth bolgia they are safe at least from the devils that chased them because they are not able to leave their assigned part of hell. Although at times devils seem to have power over damned souls in the end they are nothing but Divine’s tools eternally trapped in hell.

The scene described above, which appears a little comical to me, shows that Virgil puts Dante’s safety first. What I find even more interesting is the fact that Virgil is presented here not only as the pilgrim’s beloved master and the guide but also as a person with maternal feelings towards him.